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Regency of Algiers

Coordinates: 36°47′6″N 3°3′45″E / 36.78500°N 3.06250°E / 36.78500; 3.06250
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(Redirected from Ottoman rule in Algeria)

Regency of Algiers
دولة الجزائر (Arabic)
ایالت جزایر غرب‎‎ (Ottoman Turkish)
1516–1830
Equal sized thick green layer at bottom and top, equal sized thin yellow layer below the top and above the bottom, a maroon layer in the middle
Three equal sized layers of maroon, green and yellow from top to bottom
Flag
(1516–1830)
Motto: دار الجهاد
Bulwark of the Holy War[2][3]
Map of North Africa. The regency of Algiers is colored in light brown and is at center top, Husaynid Tunisia is to its right and colored maroon, Tripolitania is at extreme right and colored dark brown. The core territory of the 'Alawid dynasty is at center left and colored dark green, the outlying territories of the dynasty are colored light green. Important cities and the Sahara Desert are marked.
Overall territorial extent of the Regency of Algiers in the late 17th to 19th centuries[4]
StatusAutonomous eyalet (Client state) of the Ottoman Empire[5][6]
De facto independent since mid-17th century[7][8][9]
CapitalAlgiers
Official languagesOttoman Turkish and Arabic (since 1671)[10]
Common languagesAlgerian Arabic
Berber
Sabir (used in trade)
Religion
Official, and majority:
Sunni Islam (Maliki and Hanafi)
Minorities:
Ibadi Islam
Shia Islam
Judaism
Christianity
Demonym(s)Algerian or Algerine (obs.)
Government1516–1519: Sultanate
1519–1659: Regency
1659–1830: Stratocracy[11]
(Political status)
• 1516–1518
Aruj Barbarossa
• 1710–1718
Baba Ali Chaouch
• 1766-1791
Baba Mohammed ben-Osman
• 1818–1830
Hussein Dey
Historical eraEarly modern period
1509
1516
1521–1791
1541
1550–1795
1580–1640
1627
1659
1681–1688
1699–1702
1775–1785
1785–1816
1830
Population
• 1830
3,000,000–5,000,000
CurrencyMajor coins:
mahboub (sultani)
budju
aspre
Minor coins:
saïme
pataque-chique
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Hafsids of Béjaïa
Kingdom of Tlemcen
French Algeria
Beylik of Titteri
Beylik of Constantine
Western Beylik
Emirate of Abdelkader
Igawawen
Kingdom of Beni Abbas
Sultanate of Tuggurt
Awlad Sidi Shaykh
Today part ofAlgeria

The Regency of Algiers[a] (Arabic: دولة الجزائر, romanized: Dawlat al-Jaza'ir, Ottoman Turkish: ایالت جزایر غرب, romanized: Eyalet-i Cezâyir-i Garp) was a largely independent early modern Ottoman tributary state on the Barbary Coast of North Africa between 1516 and 1830 established by the corsair brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa, also known as Oruç and Khayr ad-Din. The Regency was an infamous and formidable pirate base that plundered and waged maritime holy war on European Christian powers. Ottoman regents ruled it as heads of a military oligarchy of janissaries and corsairs.

The Regency emerged in the 16th-century Ottoman–Habsburg wars as a unique corsair state that drew revenue and political power from maritime strength. In the early 17th century, when war ended between the Habsburg and Ottoman empires, the Barbary corsairs were capturing merchant ships with their crews and goods from the Spanish Empire, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of England and Dutch Republic. When the Ottomans could not prevent these attacks, European powers negotiated directly with Algiers and took military action against it.

The Regency held significant naval power in the 16th and 17th century well into the end of the Napoleonic wars despite European naval superiority. This made Algiers a corsair economy that took the shape of notorious institutionalised privateering and dealt substantial damage on European shipping, taking captives for ransom, plundered booty, hijacked shios ships and later demanded regular tribute payments that went to the rich and bustling rich city of Algiers, where the Barbary slave trade reached an apex. After the janissary coup of 1659, the Regency of Algiers became a sovereign military republic[b] whose rulers were thenceforth elected by the council known as the diwân, rather than appointed by the Ottoman sultan as before.

Wars over territory with Spain and Maghrebi states erupted in the 18th century, but Mediterranean trade and diplomatic relations with European states increased as Algiers gained political stability. The Regency prospered under Baba Usman Mohammed (1763-1791). The American Revolution meant that British tribute payments no longer covered U.S. shipping traffic in the Mediterranean, and the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars allowed large outbreaks of Algerian privateering. Increased demands from Algiers for tribute caused the Barbary Wars, in which American, British and Dutch navies engaged the Barbary corsairs at the beginning of the 19th century, and decisively defeated Algiers for the first time. Internal central authority weakened in Algiers due to political intrigue, failed harvests and the decline of privateering. Violent tribal revolts followed, mainly led by maraboutic orders such as the Darqawis and Tijanis. In 1830, France took advantage of this domestic turmoil to invade. The resulting French conquest of Algeria led to French colonial rule until 1962.

History

[edit]
Main article: History of the Regency of Algiers

16th century: Establishment

[edit]

Barbarossa brothers

[edit]

At the end of the Reconquista, about 100,000 Moriscos arrived in Melilla and Fez under King Boabdil after the Granada War in 1492. The Spanish Empire took several ports on the North African coast and established walled and garrisoned strongpoints they called presidios there.[12] The Spanish took Oran in 1509, then Tripoli in 1510,[13] and made Hafsid Tunis a vassal state.[14] The Spanish then controlled caravan trade routes from western Sudan, Tripoli and Tunis in the east and Ceuta and Melilla in the west, passing through Béjaïa, Algiers, Oran and Tlemcen. Control over this gold and slave trade fed the Spanish treasury.[15]

Ottoman corsair brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa came to North Africa at the request of the citizens of Béjaïa, who asked for help after Spain took the city in 1512,[16] then those of Jijel offered to make Aruj king after corsairs appeared there with a load of wheat in a time of famine.[17] Answering pleas for help from its inhabitants, the brothers were able to take Algiers in 1516,[18][19] execute its emir, Salim Al-Tumi,[20] and repel a Spanish attack led by Diego de Vera.[21][22] Aruj continued his conquests in central Algeria,[23] but was killed in Tlemcen in 1518.[24][25]

His brother Hayreddin became Sultan of Algiers at the end of 1519.[26] After repelling another Spanish attack under Hugo de Moncada, he realized that he needed Ottoman support to maintain his possessions around Algiers.[27] In October 1519, a delegation of Algerian dignitaries and ulamas went to Ottoman Sultan Selim I proposing that Algiers join the Ottoman Empire.[28][29] Under Suleiman I, Algiers officially became an eyalet of the Ottoman Empire in the spring of 1521,[30] Istanbul viewed the idea of integrating a territory so far away and so close to Spain as risky,[26] but Hayreddin was appointed Beylerbey lit. 'Prince of princes' and the Ottomans sent him home at the head of 2,000 janissaries.[26]

Supported by the Kabyles of Beni Abbas,[31] retook Algiers again in 1525 after defeating the Kabyle prince of Kuku,[32][33] then in 1529 destroyed a Spanish fortress known as the Peñón of Algiers that had been threatening the port.[34] Hayreddin used its rubble to build the port of Algiers,[35] and made it the headquarters of the Algerian corsair fleet.[36] Later he conducted several raids on Spanish coastal lands,[37] vanquishing the Genoese fleet of Andrea Doria in Cherchell.[38] He also rescued over 70.000 Andalusian refugees from the Spanish inquisition, and brought them to Algeria,[39][37] where they contributed massively to the flourishing culture of the Regency.[40]

Profile of a bearded man in a turban surrounded by an ornate frame. University of Heidelberg library.
Aruj Barbarossa, Sultan of Algiers, 1590s. University of Heidelberg Library.
1575 map of the city of Algiers
Birds-eye view of Algiers, 1575 Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg. University of Heidelberg library.
Profile of a bearded man in a turban surrounded by an ornate frame
Hayreddin Barbarossa, first beylerbey of Algiers.University of Heidelberg library.

Expansion of Algiers

[edit]

Under Heyreddin's successor Hasan Agha, Algiers was able to repel an Imperial naval attack led by Emperor Charles V in October 1541.[41][42] Reports of Spanish losses ranged up to 12,000 men,[43] including more than 150 ships and 200 cannons, which the Algerians salvaged for use in the fortifications of Algiers.[44] Algerian losses didn't exceed 200 men.[45] As a result, Algiers was able to consolidate and expand its territories. This was undertaken by Hayreddin's son Hasan Pasha and Salah Rais, who conquered Touggourt and Ouargla in 1552,[46][47] removed Spanish goveror de Peralta's troops from Bejaia in 1555,[48] then thwarted Count Alcaudete's expedition to Mostaganem in 1558.[49] The two beylerbeys also led campaigns against Saadian Morocco, which was allied with Spain, decisively defeating it in 1551 in Tlemcen,[47] advancing as far as Fez in 1554 then Tlemcen again in 1557.[50][51] Beylerbey Uluç Ali Pasha moved against Tunis in 1569,[52] then took it from John of Austria's 8000 Spaniards in 1574.[53] Uluç Ali's corsair ships saved the Ottoman fleet from total disaster in the battle of Lepanto in 1571.[54]

Under Hassan Veneziano Pasha, Algerian privateers ravaged the Mediterranean and made the waters unsafe from Andalusia to Sicily.[55] Their power reached as far as the Canary Islands.[56] After the capture of Fez in 1576, Ottoman Algerian troops ventured overland into the Sahara, reaching Tuat in 1578 and temporarily halting Saadian advances there.[57][58]

17th century: Golden Age

[edit]

Algerian autonomy

[edit]
[[file:Andries van Eertvelt (1590-1652) - An Algerine Ship off a Barbary Port - BHC0751 - Royal Museums Greenwich.jpg|200px|alt=A square-rigged ship leaving a harbor}i}

Privateering was so widespread in the early 17th century that the period became known as a "golden age of privateering".[1] By 1600, Algerian corsairs had adopted the square-rigged sailing ships introduced by Dutch corsair Simon Dansa and begun to rely less on Christian galley slaves.[2][3] The expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain also gave the corsairs reinforcements, with whom they weakened and inflicted painful wounds on Spain, ravaging its mainland and territories in Italy, where the corsairs took people prisoner en masse.[4][5] The corsairs traveled as far as Iceland in 1627 and Ireland in 1631.[6][7] Algiers became a market for captives and plundered goods bought by merchants from all over the Mediterranean,[4] making Algiers a wealthy thriving city with over 100,000 inhabitants in the 17th century.[8]

Algiers also became increasingly independent of the Ottomans in this period.[9] In the 16th century, France signed capitulation treaties with the Ottomans that established the Franco-Ottoman Alliance and gave the French trading privileges in Algiers.[10] They built a French trading center known as the Bastion de France,[1] which exported coral legally under its monopoly and wheat, in that case illegally. The Bastion was fortified and turned into a military supply base and a center of espionage, much to Algerian discontent.[11] When the Ottoman expanded French privileges, Khider Pasha [fr] destroyed the Bastion in 1604.[12] The Porte had him assassinated and replaced by the more compliant Mohammed Koucha [fr] Pasha,[13] but the janissaries revolted in 1606 and tortured that pasha to death.[14] Algiers and Istanbul had different views of relations with France.[15]

After the battle of Lapento, the corsairs broke loose from the Ottoman Porte and began preying on ships from countries at peace with the Ottomans.[4] The European converts to Islam, known in Europe as renegades and turned Turks, formed mostly the tai'fa (council of corsair captains) and sought to fulfill the interests of Algiers only.[16][17] Corsair captain Ali Bitchin became admiral of the Algerian navy in 1621 [18] and conducted successful raids against Spanish harbors.[19] After the Ottoman sultan refused to compensate Algiers for its losses against the Venetians in Valona,[20] Ali Bitchin refused to answer a summons from the sultan to join the Cretan war. He then died suddenly in 1645.[21][22]

A map of western Europe and North Africa showing three figures. One points a bow.
Map of the Mediterranean balance of power in the 17th century. An archer threatens Philip IV of Spain with his bow while Louis XIII looks on. National Library of France.
Map of the Barbary states in 1707.jpg
City of Algiers
City of Algiers

Foreign relations

Algiers' refusal to follow Ottoman foreign policy led European powers to negotiate treaties with it directly on trade, tribute and slave ransoms,[23] recognizing Algerian autonomy despite its formal subordination to the Ottomans.[24] Algiers used privateering as a foreign policy tool, playing its European counterparts against one other,[25][26][a] hunting merchant ships and prompting European states to conclude peace treaties and obtain Mediterranean passes to secure lucrative cabotage business at the expense of their Continental rivals.[27][23]

This conferred on Algerian rulers internal legitimacy as "champions of jihad" and, according to early modern European authors, international respect for their Regency's legal sovereignty as an established government, despite still being a "nest of Pirates".[28][29][30] Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) noted that "Algiers exercised the jus ad bellum of a sovereign power through its corsairs".[30] Historian Daniel Panzac stressed:[28]

Indeed, privateering was based on two fundamental principles: it was one of the forms of war practiced by the Maghreb against the Christian states, which conferred upon it a dimension that was at one and the same time legitimate and religious; and it was exercised in a framework defined by a state strong enough to enact its rules and control their application.

Algiers first established relations with France in 1617,[31] with a treaty signed in 1619,[32] and another in 1628.[33][11] These mostly concerned the Bastion de France and the rights of French merchants in Algiers.[34][35] But the Bastion was razed a second time by Ali Bitchin in 1637,[36] as armed incidents between French and Algerian vessels were frequent. Nonetheless, a treaty in 1640 allowed France to regain its North African commercial establishments.[36][37]

England and the Dutch Republic went through the same diplomatic process with Algiers as France. After earlier engagements in 1621[38] and 1624, Algerian corsair ships took thousands of English[39] and Dutch sailors to the Algerian slave market,[40] resulting in intermittent wars followed by long lasting peace treaties that varied between tribute payment and weapon supplies.[40][41][42]

Under Louis XIV, France built a strong navy to face off the corsairs who raided Corsica and were everywhere in the waters off Marseilles in the late 1650s.[15] It launched multiple campaigns against the Regency. These were carried out first in Jijel and Collo in 1664,[43] then several bombings of Algiers were conducted between 1682 and 1688 in what is known as the Franco-Algerian war,[25] which ended when a 100-year peace treaty was signed between Dey Hussein Mezzo Morto and King Louis.[44]

Ships burning at anchor in the harbour at Béjaïa
English fireship set on seven captured ships in Béjaïa on 18 May 1671, by Willem van de Velde the Younger (1633–1707). British Royal Collection

18th century: Regional power

Maghrebi wars

Algiers entered a period of peaceful relations with Europe.[45] The resulting decline in privateering forced Algiers to seek other sources of external revenue. Dey Hadj Chabane set his sights on his Maghrebi neighbors, Tunis and Morocco.[46] For historical reasons, Algiers considered Tunisia a dependency because Algiers had annexed it to the Ottoman Empire,[47] which made the appointment of its pashas a prerogative of the Algerian beylerbeys.[48] Faced with Tunisian opposition to Algerian hegemony and its ambitions in the Constantine region,[49] the Algerian dey took the opportunity provided by the 20 years of civil war between Murad II Bey's sons to invade in 1694 and put a puppet bey on the throne.[50][51] A vengeful Murad III Bey of Tunis allied with Morocco and unleashed the Maghrebi war in 1700.[47] He lost however, and the Muradid dynasty was replaced by the Husainid dynasty,[47] which failed to free Tunis from Algerian suzerainty in 1735[52] or 1756.[53] It did not succeed until the early 19th century.[54]

Alawi Morocco opposed the Ottomans with determination.[49] It also had ancient ambitions in western Algeria and especially in Tlemcen.[49] Algerian support for pretenders to the Moroccan throne[55] was answered with several invasions by Sultan Moulay Ismail in 1678,[56] 1692,[57] 1701[58] and 1707,[59] all of which ended in failures.[60] Moulay Ismail was forced to accept the Moulouya River as his eastern border with Ottoman Algeria.[61]

Dey-Pashas of Algiers

Fort atop a hill with a chapel in the foreground at a lower elevation
Fort and chapel of Santa Cruz, Oran
Long cannon barrel with inscription in Arabic script
Cannon of Dey Muhammed ben Othman, Hotel des Invalides
A document with Spanish text at the left side and Arabic text at the right side, a seal and signature are inscribed on both the top and bottom of the Arabic text
The Treaty of 1791 ended almost 300 years of war. PARES.

Determined to remove the Spanish from Oran, Algerian Dey Mohammed Bektash [fr] took the opportunity afforded by the War of the Spanish Succession to send Mustapha Bouchelaghem Bey at the head of a contingent of janissaries and local volunteers to take the city. He succeeded in 1707,[62] but in 1732 Bouchelaghem Bey could not resist the Duke of Montemar's forces who recaptured the city.[63] Internally, Algerian Dey Baba Ali Chaouch ended Ottoman influence by taking the Pasha title for himself in 1710.[64] When the Habsburg monarchy concluded the peace of Passarowitz with the Ottoman Empire in 1718, Dey Ali Chaouch had Austrian ships captured despite the treaty, and refused to pay compensation to an Ottoman-Austrian delegation,[65] thus confirming the independent foreign policy of Algiers[66] despite its nominal subordination to the Ottoman Empire.[65]

On 3 February 1748 Dey Mohamed Ibn Bekir [fr; ar] issued what is known as "The Fundamental Pact of 1748" or "Pact of trust", a text that defined the rights of the subjects of Algiers and of all inhabitants of the Regency of Algiers. It codified the behavior of the different army units: janissaries, gunners, chaouchs and sipahis.[67][68]

Muhammad ben Othman Pasha became dey in 1766. He ruled over a prosperous Algiers for a full quarter-century until he died in 1791,[1][69] undertaking several public works, such as fortifications around the city of Algiers, and a municipal water supply and fountains.[70] He also strengthened the navy,[71] kept the janissaries in check and developed trade.[69] His efforts to the pacify the territory of the regency were fruitful, as his governor of Constantine Salah Bey managed to re-assert authority as far south as Touggourt.[72]

The dey was active in international affairs, and increased the annual tribute paid by several European states[69][31] such as Britain, Sweden, the Italian states, and Denmark, which sent a naval campaign against Algiers under Frederik Kaas in 1770. But it failed and Denmark was forced to pay heavy war compensations and gifts to Algiers.[73][74]

In 1775 the Irish-born admiral of the Spanish Empire Alejandro O'Reilly led an expedition to knock down pirate activity in the Mediterranean. The assault's disastrous failure dealt a humiliating blow to the reorganized Spanish military.[75] This was succeeded by two bombardments, by Antonio Barcelo in 1783[76] and 1784, also ending in defeat.[77] Led by Mohammed Kebir Bey in 1791,[78] Algiers launched a final assault on Oran, which was retaken after negotiations between Dey Hasan III Pasha with the Spanish Count of Floridablanca. This marked the end of almost 300 years of "holy war" between Algeria and Spain.[79][80]

19th century: End of the Regency of Algiers

Internal crisis

At the beginning of the 19th century, Algiers was plagued by political unrest and economic problems.[81] Algerian reliance on Jewish merchants to trade with Europe was so great[82][b] that a crisis caused by crop failure led to the assassination of Dey Mustapha Pasha [fr] and the death of Jewish merchant Naphtali Busnash. Public unrest, a pogrom and successive coups followed, beginning a 20-year period of instability.[81] The Moroccans incited a massive Sufi Darqawiyya revolt in the east and west of the regency,[83][84] which was quelled with great difficulty by the governor of Oran, Osman Bey.[85] In the meantime, janissary revolts were frequent due to payment delays, leading to military setbacks,[86] as Morocco took possession of Figuig in 1805, Tuat and Oujda in 1808,[87][88][89] and Tunisia freed itself from Algerian rule after the wars of 1807 and 1813.[90]

Barbary Wars

Naval vassals bombing a coastal city as a ship is burning
1816 Bombardment of Algiers, Thomas Luny. Royal Museums Greenwich
A seated man on a sofa with three attendants, all in Algerian dress, receives two men in English attire in a type of balcony. Outside the balcony's arches, many ships can be seen
Dey Omar Agha receiving the representative of Lord Exmouth after the bombardment of Algiers in 1816. Victoria and Albert Museum.

Internal financial problems led Algiers to re-engage in widespread piracy against American and European shipping in the early 19th century, taking full advantage of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.[91] Algerian vessels attacked American merchant ships in 1785, claiming they were no longer under British protection and asserting an Algerian right to search and seizure.[92] American president George Washington agreed to pay a ransom and annual tribute equal to $10 million over 12 years, in accordance to a peace treaty with Algiers in 1795.[91] But Algiers was defeated in the Second Barbary War by the United States in 1815, when U.S commodore Stephen Decatur's squadron killed Algerian admiral Raïs Hamidou in the battle off Cape Gata on 17 June 1815,[93] ending the Algerian threat to U.S shipping in the Mediterranean.[93]

The new European order that emerged from the Coalition Wars and the Congress of Vienna no longer tolerated Algerian raids and viewed them as a "barbaric relic of a previous age."[94] This culminated in August 1816, when Lord Exmouth carried out a bombardment of Algiers that ended in a British and Dutch victory, a weakened Algerian navy, and the liberation of 1,200 slaves.[95][96] The last deys of Algiers attempted to nullify the consequences of the previous Algerian defeats by reviving buccaneering and resisting a British attack on Algiers in 1824,[97][98] creating the false belief that Algiers could still defend itself against a divided Europe.[99]

French invasion

During Napoleon's time, Algiers benefited greatly from Mediterranean trade and France's massive food imports, much of which were bought on credit. In 1827, Hussein Dey demanded that the restored Kingdom of France pay off a 31-year-old debt dating from 1799 for providing supplies to the soldiers of Napoleon's campaign in Egypt.[100]

The response of the French consul Pierre Deval displeased Hussein Dey, who hit him with a fly whisk and insulted him as an "infidel".[100] King Charles X took this incident as an opportunity to break off diplomatic relations[100] and launch a full-scale invasion of Algeria on June 14, 1830. Algiers surrendered on July 5, and Hussein Dey went into exile in Naples, this marked the end of the Regency of Algiers.[101]

Political status

Man wearing a helmet seen in profile
Sultan Charardin of Algeria, Called Barbarossa, by Lorenzo de Musi (Italian, active c. 1535). Philadelphia Museum.
Detailed depiction of the geography around the Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea and vicinity in the Planisphere of Urbano Monti "Tavola Quinta, Che Ha Sua Superiore La Tavola Prima" (1587)
A crowd of people bow to a mounted dignitary arriving with an escort
The arrival of the new pasha, Viceroy of Algiers, sent by the great lord (Ottoman Sultan) Jan Luyken (1684). Amsterdam Museum.


The Regency of Algiers emerged from the Ottoman–Habsburg wars in the western Mediterranean as the center of Ottoman rule in northwest Africa after 1516.[102][103] As a bastion of the Ottoman Empire in its competition with the West for control over the western Mediterranean,[103] Algiers became the headquarters of probably the greatest janissary force in the empire outside Constantinople. Much like the island of Malta, which served as a base for Christian pirates and privateers, the Barbary coast Regency was home to the Muslim pirates of the region.[104]

"Aruj effectively began the powerful greatness of Algiers and the Barbary", wrote Fray Diego de Haedo [fr], a Spanish Benedictine from Sicily who was held captive in Algiers in 1577-1580.[105] Algiers underwent numerous political developments with the transformation of the Ottoman Empire from strength and expansion to weakness and stagnation as a local government that accepted Ottoman legitimacy.[102]

1516: State of Algiers established

Aruj built a powerful Muslim state in the central Maghreb at the expense of its principalities.[105] He sought the support of the religious authorities, in particular the popular maraboutic and Sufi orders. [106] He conveyed his vision to them of the government structure he envisioned, the Odjak of Algiers,[107] a military republic like that of the island of Rhodes occupied by the Christian Knights Hospitaller.[108]

The Odjak administrative structure and the religiously sanctioned power of Aruj were freely accepted by the military, with the scimitars of Turks and Christian renegades behind him. They made his authority absolute, and accepted without resistance by the population.[108] Power was in the hands of the Odjak. Native Algerians and coulouglis were excluded from high government positions,[107] although they could still hold legal and police powers within Algiers as mayors.[109]

Hayreddin's consolidation

The new pasha, Hayreddin Barbarossa, inherited his brother's position unopposed.[105] A shrewd statesman and a great captain,[110] he designed a strategy for the Algerian state's existence.[105] He pledged allegiance to the Sublime Porte to obtain its support against the Spanish Empire and the rebellions fomented by his opponents, and had himself recognized by the sultan as pasha, [111] a regent with the title of beylerbey.[46][105]

To manage state affairs and govern the country, he relied on the carefully chosen janissary members of the diwân council.[112][113] Even if they reflected the Ottoman ruling class, the leaders and members of the diwân still referred to themselves as Algerians,[114][115] Barbarossa established the military basis of the Regency,[116] formalised corsairs into a well-organized institution that recruited, financed and operated the infamous tai'fa of raïs. It became the model for Barbary corsairs in Tunis, Tripoli and the Republic of Salé.[117] The Barbarossa brothers' campaigns paid to fortify and develop the city of Algiers into a new capital for the growing naval power of the Algerian state.[118]

Ottoman Regency (1519–1659)

Beylerbeylik period (1519–1587)

ships off the coast of a city, one docked near the city, whose towers are visible
Barbary pirate galleys, Dutch painting, Rijksmuseum

The foreign policy of Algiers in its first few decades aligned completely with that of the Ottoman Empire, since the country and its affairs were in the hands of Ottoman beylerbeys.[119] They were corsair captains of Algiers appointed by the Ottoman sultan.[120] The beylerbeys often remained in power for several years, exercising authority over Tunis and Tripoli, and led Ottoman expansion in the Mediterranean.[121] Because of their experience in fleet command, some beylerbeys became Kapudan Pasha.[122] Algiers became the most successful port in the Maghreb and a very cosmopolitan city.[123][124] European powers portrayed it as the "scourge of Christendom" and a 16th-century "rogue state".[124] The beylerbeys acted as independent sovereigns despite acknowledging the suzerainty of the sultan. De Haëdo called them "Kings of Algiers".[125][120] The janissary-elected Hasan Corso openly rebelled in 1556. A Corsican convert, he refused to submit to the pasha sent by Constantinople.[126] Aided by the corsairs, the pasha murdered Hasan Corso, but in turn the janissaries murdered the pasha.[127] The ensuing instability prompted Suleiman the Magnificent to send Hasan Pasha to Algiers,[128] who relied heavily on native troops like other beylerbeys.[129]

The "timar" system of granting fertile lands to Ottoman sipahis was not applied in Algiers. Instead the beylerbeys sent tribute to Constantinople every year, after meeting the expenses of the state.[130] In return, Constantinople provided a steady stream of janissaries.[131] The sultan gave the ruler of Algiers a free hand but expected Algerian ships to help enforce Ottoman foreign policy if need be.[132] Eventually the internal and external interests of Algiers and Constantinople diverged on the matter of privateering, over which the Porte had no control.[133]

Pashalik period (1587–1659)

Fearful of the growing independence of the rulers of Algiers, the Ottoman Empire abolished the beylerbeylik system in 1587, and put the pashalik system in its place,[134] dividing the Maghreb countries into three separate regencies: Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli.[135] The ensuing period of nearly 72 years was known for political instability; power formally rested in the hands of governors that Constantinople replaced every three years. However, this was also considered the "Golden Age of Algiers" due to its massive corsair fleet.[136][7] By the end of the 16th century, janissaries were allowed to join corsair ships, strengthening the combat effectiveness of the Algerian fleet,[137] and filling its coffers with riches thanks to the intensified privateering.[9][134]

The Algerian janissary Odjak grew stronger, more autonomous, and more influential.[130][131] In 1596, Khider Pasha [fr] led a revolt in Algiers in an effort to overthrow the Odjak. Although the revolt spread to neighboring towns, it ultimately failed.[138][139] The janissaries organized themselves in their diwân (military council), the effective government of Algiers by 1626 at the expense of the pashas,[140] allowing it to conclude diplomatic treaties with the Dutch republic in 1622,[141] and France in 1628.[142] The pasha began official acts with the formula: "We, pasha and diwân of the invincible militia of Algiers".[143]

The corsairs for their part organized themselves into a tai'fa, a council of corsair captains tasked with privateering operations, which became the main driver of Mediterranean diplomacy with European powers.[17] The tai'fa ignored the Ottoman Kapudan Pasha and relied on piracy and captivity to keep Algiers financially and politically independent from Constantinople.[142]

The later pashas sent by the Porte were constantly torn between the demands of the corsairs and of the Odjak.[133] The corsair captains were effectively outside the pashas' control, and the janissaries' loyalty to them depended on their ability to collect taxes and meet payroll.[103] Both groups sometimes refused orders from the sultan or even sent the Porte's appointed pashas back to Constantinople.[133]

Sovereign Military Republic (1659–1830)

Janissary revolution: Agha regime in 1659

Main article: Odjak of Algiers Revolution
Helmeted man wearing a surcoat
Janissary of the Odjak of Algiers
Man stepping forward unsheathing a scimitar
Corsair captain of Algiers, Andreas Matthäus Wolffgang

Khider Pasha [fr] and the janissaries opposed the Ottoman capitulation treaties in 1604. Aversion to the Sublime Porte increased.[144] The pashas sent by the porte worked to multiply their wealth as quickly as possible before the end of their three-year term in office. As long as this was their main goal, governance became a secondary issue, and the pashas lost all influence and respect.[145]

In 1659, Ibrahim Pasha pocketed some of the money the Ottoman sultan sent the corsairs to compensate them for their losses in the Cretan War. This ignited a massive revolt[146] and he was arrested and imprisoned.[147] Taking advantage of this incident, Khalil Agha, commander-in-chief of the janissaries of Algiers, seized power,[148][149] accusing the pashas sent by the Sublime Porte of corruption and hindering the Regency's affairs with European countries.[150] The janissaries effectively eliminated the authority of the pasha,[151] whose position became purely ceremonial. They assigned executive authority to Khalil Agha, provided that his rule not exceed two months. They put legislative power in the hands of the diwân council. The sultan, forced to accept the new government, stipulated that the diwân pay the Turkish soldiers stationed there.[152] Khalil Agha launched his rule by building the iconic Djamaa el Djedid mosque.[152] The era of the Aghas began[149] and the pashalik became a military republic.[153][154][155]

Deylik period (1671–1830)

In 1671 Sir Edward Spragge's squadron [156] destroyed seven ships anchored in the harbor at Algiers, and the corsairs killed Agha Ali (1664–71). The three previous heads of the janissaries since 1659 had also all been assassinated.[157] Caught unaware, janissary leaders wanted to appoint another agha of a sovereign Algiers, but given the lack of candidates, they and the corsairs resorted to an expedient Ali Bitchin Rais had used in 1644–45. They entrusted both the Regency and the responsibility for its payroll to an old Dutch rais named Hadj Mohammed Trik.[158][159]

They gave him the titles of Dey (maternal uncle), Doulateli (head of state) and Hakem (military ruler).[160] After 1671, the deys led the country,[158][161] but their power was checked by the Diwân council.[115] This institutionalization of the relationship between holders of military and financial power and formal diplomatic recognition from European states,[64] effectively made Algiers de facto independent of the Ottoman Empire.[162]

[[File:Dey of Algiers Mohammed ben Hassan.jpg|thumb|Mohamed Ben Hassan Pasha-Dey giving audience to the King of France's envoy Mr Dusault in 1719|alt=Four people writing behind a turbaned man in talks with a group of representatives.]]The pashas plotted in the shadows, stirred up conflicts and fomented sedition to overthrow the unpopular deys and regain some of their lost authority.[148] From 1710 on the deys assumed the title of Pasha at the initiative of Dey Baba Ali Chaouch (1710–1718), and no longer accepted representatives from the Porte.[64] They also imposed their authority on the janissaries and the raïs.[157] The latter did not approve of treaty provisions which restricted privateering, their main source of income, and remained attached to the external prestige of the Regency.[163] But European reactions, new treaties guaranteeing the safety of navigation and a slowdown in shipbuilding considerably reduced their activity. The raïs rose up and killed Dey Mohamed Ben Hassan in 1724.[164]

The new dey, Baba Abdi [fr] Pasha (1724–1732), quickly restored order and severely punished the conspirators.[165] He managed to stabilize the Regency and fight off corruption. The diwân was gradually weakened in favor of the dey's cabinet, known as "powers", resulting in more stability through the implementation of a sort of bureaucracy.[166][167] Relations with Constantinople became formalized; the sultan was assured of Algerian "obedience" in return for recruiting troops from Ottoman lands, yet the dey was not bound to Ottoman foreign policy.[168]

In the three beyliks (provinces), the beys relied on local notables since they had a limited number of janissaries. This allowed the coulouglis linked by blood ties to the great indigenous families to become beys.[169] Supported by the coulouglis and the Kabyles, Dey Ali Khodja disposed of the turbulent janissaries, and transferred the seat of power and the treasury of the regency from the Djenina Palace to the Casbah citadel in 1817.[170]

Historian John Douglas Ruedy believes that the early 18th-century "deturkification" could have led to a 19th century nationalization of the Algerian regime, but the French conquest put an end to this evolution.[171]

Administration

Three-story palace in turn of the century photograph
Djenina Palace, seat of the Regency of Algiers

The administrative apparatus of Ottoman Algeria organized itself through borrowed Ottoman systems, maintained by regular recruitment of military personnel from Ottoman lands in exchange for tribute sent to the Porte, and local traditions inherited from the Almohad Caliphate and adopted by the Marinids, Zayyanids, and Hafsids.[172]

The corsairs waged holy war against the Christians through the use of gunpowder and the resources of the Ottoman Empire, and exploited their political and military superiority to defeat weak local emirates and impose a foreign elite on a divided Maghrebi society.[173] Politics in Algiers centered on the Ottoman military elite autonomous from tribal and self-ruled indigenous society in the countryside, which still gave allegiance and paid taxes to a military authority that respected their marabouts[174] and defended them against Christian powers.[c][175]

Algerian stratocracy

Some contemporary observers described the Regency of Algiers as a "despotic, military-aristocratic republic", since the executive, legislative and judicial powers were all held by the military body of Algiers.[176][d] The Marquis d'Argens compared it to the Roman Empire under Nero and Caligula and called it a republic, even though he also called the dey of Algiers a king.[177]

Montesquieu considered that the Algerian government consisted of an aristocracy with republican and egalitarian characteristics, elevating and deposing a despotic sovereign, while historian Edward Gibbon considered Algiers a "military government that floats between absolute monarchy and wild democracy".[177] It was unique among Muslim countries in having limited democracy and elected rulers. Democracy was at the time extremely unusual in 18th-century Europe, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau found Algiers impressive in this respect.[178] Unlike modern political democracies based on majority rule, transfers of power, and competition between political parties, politics in Algiers relied on the principle of consensus (ijma), legitimized by Islam and by jihad.[178]

Algerian historian Lamnouar Merouche described the janissary corps of Algiers as a "collective regime", a "sovereign community" and a "military republic".[179] American historian John Baptist Wolf noted that this 17th century military democracy was later hampered by the absolute rule of the deys, starting from Baba Ali Chaouch in 1710.[180]

Dey of Algiers

Turbaned man seated with a knife in his belt holding a peacock-feather fan
Hussein Pasha, last dey of Algiers (1818–1830)

French historian Charles-André Julien wrote that the dey of Algiers was head of an elective but absolute monarchy—a de-facto constitutional autocracy.[181][182][119] He was charged with enforcing civil and military laws, ensuring internal security, generating necessary revenues, organizing and providing regular pay for soldiers, and assuring relations with the tribes.[183] But his power was still limited by the corso captains and the diwân of janissaries, since any member of either body could aspire to become dey.[119] His fortune came from his civil list that didn't exceed that of the highest paid member of the janissaries, and although he could still receive presents from consuls, beys and shares from privateer booty, his fortune reverted back to the public treasury in the event of assassination.[184][185] This led some authors who compared the dey to the king of Poland–Lithuania to call him a "despot without liberty",[181][186] a "king of slaves and slave of his subjects", and a "man of wealth but far from a master of his treasures".[187][188]

Electing the dey was accomplished in absolute equality by unanimous vote among the armed forces.[189] Ottoman Algerian dignitary Hamdan Khodja wrote:[190]

Among the members of the government two of them are called, one "wakil-el-kharge", and the other "khaznagy". It is from these dignitaries that the dey is chosen; sovereignty in Algiers is not hereditary: personal merit is not transmitted to children. In a way we could say that they adopted the principles of a republic, of which the dey is only the president.

Election was required for confirmation from the Ottoman sultan, who inevitably sent a firman of investiture, a red kaftan of honor, a saber of state and the rank of Pasha of three Horsetails in the Ottoman army.[191] However, the dey was elected for life and could only be replaced on his death. Overthrowing the current leader was thus the only path to power, so violence and instability flourished. This volatility led many early 18th-century European observers to point to Algiers as an example of the inherent dangers of democracy.[178]

Cabinet

A photograph of a palace with a garden
Palace of Mustafa Khodjet al-Khil [fr] (secretary of horses)
A photograph of a building near the coast with people passing by
Admiralty of Algiers in 1896, seat of Kapudan rais, harbourmaster and Wakil al-kharaj (minister of the navy)
A photograph of a building with multiple arches, and a fountain in the center
Moorish courtyard of the janissary barracks of Algiers


The dey appointed and relied on five ministers (except the agha), who formed the "Council of the Powers"[192] to govern Algiers:[157]

  • Khaznaji [fr]: treasurer in charge of finances and the public treasury.[193] Often also translated as vizier of the dey, or "principal secretary of state".
  • Agha al-mahalla [fr]: Commander-in-chief of the Odjak and minister of internal affairs, he was also responsible for governing the Dar Es-Soltane [fr] region of Algiers.
  • Wakil al-Kharaj [fr] : Minister of the navy and foreign affairs,[193] he was the Kapudan rais or head of the tai'fa of rais. He was also responsible for matters relating to weapons, ammunition and fortifications.
  • Khodjet al-khil [fr]: Responsible for relations with tribes, fiscal responsibilities and tax collections, he usually headed expeditions to the tribal interior. He also had the ceremonial role of "secretary of horses" and was assisted by a Khaznadar (treasurer).[194]
  • Bait al-Maldji: Responsible for the state domain (makhzen) and for rights devolved to the treasury such as vacant inheritances, registrations and confiscations.[194]

The dey also nominated muftis (Islamic jurists) as the highest echelon of Algerian justice. [195]

Diwân council

Black and white painting of a man seated on a high seat in a type of court, with people all around him
Hasan Agha addresses audiences in a large square. Attitude of the Divan of Algiers, by Jan Luyken (1684). Amsterdam Museum

The diwân of Algiers was established in the 16th century by Hayreddin Barbarossa and seated first in the Jenina Palace [fr], then at the kasbah citadel. This assembly, initially led by a janissary Agha, evolved from an administrative body, the Odjak of Algiers, into the country's primary administrative institution.[196] The diwân held true power in the Regency, and by the mid-17th century elected the head of state.[119]

The diwân expanded into two subdivisions:[146]

  • The private (janissary) diwân (diwân khass): Any recruit could rise through the ranks, one every three years. Over time, he would serve among 24 janissary bulukbasis (senior officers), who voted on high policy.[197] The commander-in-chief or "Agha of Two Moons" was elected for a term of two months as president of the diwân through a system of "democracy by seniority".[198] The Agha was the holder of the Fundamental pact ('Ahad aman) of 1748.[199] According to Hamdan Khodja:[200]

    The head of this divan is called Aghat-el-Askar; he carries a saber and a kind of relic which contains the regulations of the regency (their charter); The agha must always carry this relic with him and never part without it.

    During the Agha period (1659–1671) he was the ruler of the Regency, holding the title of Hakem.[146]
  • The public, or Grand Diwân (diwân âm), composed of 800 to 1500 Hanafi scholars and preachers, the raïs, and native notables.[201] At the beginning of their mandate, the deys consulted the diwân on all important questions and decrees. This council in principle met weekly, depending on the dey. By the 19th century, he could ignore the diwân whenever he felt powerful enough to govern alone.[202][196]

Territorial management

A map of Algeria with parts of Spain, Morocco and Tunisia visible. The Mediterranean Sea, important cities, lakes and rivers are annotated
Ottoman Algeria

The Regency was composed of various beyliks under the authority of beys (vassals):[203]

These beyliks were institutionally divergent and enjoyed significant autonomy.[204]

Ottoman administration of Algeria relied on Arab makhzen tribes.[151] Under the beylik system, the beys divided their beyliks into chiefdoms. Each province was divided into outan, or counties, governed by caïds (commanders) under the authority of the bey to maintain order and collect taxes.[205] The beys ran an administrative system and managed their beyliks with the help of commanders and governors among the makhzen tribes. In return, these tribes enjoyed special privileges, including exemption from taxes.[206]

The bey of Constantine relied on the strength of the local tribes. At their forefront were the Beni Abbas in Medjana and the Arab tribes in Hodna and the M'zab region. The chiefs of these tribes were called Sheikh of the Arabs.[205] This system allowed Algiers to expand its authority over northern Algeria for three centuries.[207]

Economy

Algerian slave ransom economy

A man chained at the ankle holding a sewing needle, 2 ships at sea to his bottom right and left, French text above and behind him
French slave in Algiers working as a tailor before his ransoming (1670–1685). This self-portrait done later in Paris. Leichtenstein Princely Collection.
Algerian corsairs raided coasts and seized ships, capturing many people on land and at sea from Mediterranean shores to the Atlantic high seas.[208] Prisoners were brought to the slave market in Algiers, through which passed between 25,000 and 36,000 slaves of many nationalities,[9][209] over one million European slaves total in the entire early modern period, a trade which made slavery the cornerstone of the Barbary economy.[210]

After they were paraded naked, examined and inspected to assess their qualities, social position and value,[211] the captured individuals were divided into three groups:[212]

  • Those who were believed ransomable: Usually rich and better referred to as "captives", they were an important source of revenue. The owners of these captives spared them the hardest tasks to preserve their value, as they were to be ransomed as quickly as possible.[213] According to Julien: "The captive was a piece of merchandise which it was to no one's interest to damage."[214]
  • Those who were not believed ransomable: A poorer class and lower-priced, like their Muslim counterparts in France,[215] they often became galley slaves or were assigned to forced labor like moving rocks. Some were chosen as domestic slaves for their masters' households.[208]
  • Those who were freed without ransom, because of exchanges for Muslim captives, honoring past agreements between states, or lost wars.

Government-owned captives were lodged in prisons called "bagnos". Six main prisons existed in Algiers.[214] The privately owned captives were lodged inside houses or larger prisons funded by slave owners,[216] often rich individuals or privateering companies.[217]

In Spain, France and the Dutch republic,[213] ransom funds were drawn from the captive's family, donations from the state, or religious orders of the Catholic church who negotiated in Algiers for the captives.[218] Ransoming missions such as the Trinitarians and the Mercedarians[215] were instructed to identify captives who were in danger of apostacy, captives whose family and friends had raised money, and valuable individuals before a ransom agreement was reached.[219] The captives who could buy their own freedom were allowed to move freely in Algiers, and often managed its taverns.[214]

Christians were exchanged for small sums in early 16th century. In the 17th century however, the redemptionist missions paid 100 and 200 to 300 pounds or more for their freedom. Persons of distinction were almost priceless: the governor of the Canary Islands bought himself back in 1670 for 60,000 pounds.[220]

After ransom was paid, an additional fee for customs duties was still needed, over fifty percent of the agreed ransom. These fees broke down as follows:[221]

  • 10% for customs
  • 15% for the pasha or dey
  • 4% for the khaznaji (Secretary of State)
  • 7% for the wakil Al-kharaj (harbourmaster)
  • 17% for the prison guards

Slaves who became master carpenters, and built or repaired ships, could not be ransomed for any price.

Armed and turbaned men beat prisoners as a priest ransoms them
Purchase of Christian captives, 17th century. "Le Commerce des Captifs" Wolfgang Kaiser
A plaza in a city where chained people are paraded naked and sold
Slave market in Algiers, 17th century. Amsterdam Historic Museum.

Mandatory royalties and gifts

Algiers imposed royalties on its European trading partners in exchange for freedom of navigation in the western Mediterranean, and gave the merchants of those countries special privileges, including lower customs duties.[222][1] Royalties were also imposed on Bremen, Hanover, and Prussia, in addition to the Papal States on some occasions.[222] These royalties were paid annually or biennially and differed according to the relationship between those countries and Algiers, and the conditions prevailing in that period had an impact on determining their amounts, shown in the following table:[222]

{]]
An Algerine Ship off a Barbary Port, by Andries van Eertvelt (1590–1652). Royal Museums Greenwich.

36°47′6″N 3°3′45″E / 36.78500°N 3.06250°E / 36.78500; 3.06250

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  190. ^ Khoja 2016, pp. 101–102.
  191. ^ Spencer 1976, p. 62.
  192. ^ Wolf 1979, p. 290.
  193. ^ a b McDougall 2017.
  194. ^ a b Kaddache 2003, p. 432.
  195. ^ Spencer 1976, p. 91.
  196. ^ a b Boyer 1970b, pp. 99–124.
  197. ^ Spencer 1976, p. 50.
  198. ^ Isichei 1997, p. 272.
  199. ^ ibn Bekir 1860, p. 219.
  200. ^ Khoja 2016, p. 95.
  201. ^ Verdès-Leroux 2009, p. 289.
  202. ^ Kaddache 2003, p. 413.
  203. ^ Panzac 2005, p. 15.
  204. ^ Ruedy 2005, pp. 32–33.
  205. ^ a b Julien 1970, p. 295.
  206. ^ Abun Nasr 1987, p. 169.
  207. ^ Boaziz 2007, p. 25.
  208. ^ a b Chaney 2015, p. 7.
  209. ^ Boaziz 2007, p. 200.
  210. ^ Tikka, Uusitalo & Wyżga 2023, p. 72.
  211. ^ Julien 1970, p. 308.
  212. ^ Panzac 2005, p. 120.
  213. ^ a b Tikka, Uusitalo & Wyżga 2023, p. 73.
  214. ^ a b c Julien 1970, p. 309.
  215. ^ a b Panzac 2005, p. 30.
  216. ^ Chaney 2015, pp. 7–8.
  217. ^ Garrot 1910, p. 460.
  218. ^ Chaney 2015, p. 8.
  219. ^ Chaney 2015, pp. 8–9.
  220. ^ Garrot 1910, p. 465.
  221. ^ Garrot 1910, p. 466.
  222. ^ a b c Saidouni 2009, p. 141.


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